Every child deserves a great start in life. High quality nutrition is important to support infants’ health and development from day one – and throughout life. It’s an area of huge fascination and innovation; science is always evolving on what ‘good’ nutrition looks like and how it can impact new product development in the real world. But what if the key to advancing infant nutrition lies in the overlooked complexity within a trusted and widely used ingredient?
Here, Dianne Delsing, PhD, Senior Researcher, Nutrition & Health at FrieslandCampina Ingredients dives into this exciting new topic, unpacking recent scientific insights on how GOS can help brands deliver elevated oligosaccharide diversity in infant nutrition. Read on to uncover how this latest discovery could shape the future of early life nutrition by supporting infant gut health and much more.
We all know that breast milk is the gold standard for early life nutrition, offering the greatest support for babies’ healthy growth and development. However, breastfeeding is not always possible – or it comes down to parental choice. When this is the case, infant milk formula becomes an essential alternative.
First let’s look at the composition of breast milk to better understand the golden standard in infant nutrition. After fat and lactose, oligosaccharides are the third largest solid component of human milk. This complex group of carbohydrates, known as ‘Human Milk Oligosaccharides’ or HMOs, helps establish the developing gut microbiota, and therefore plays a central role in supporting infant gut health and immunity during the crucial early years.
Bode, L. & Jantscher-krenn, E. Structure-Function Relationships of Human Milk Oligosaccharides. Advances in Nutrition 3, 383S-391S (2012)
These extraordinary carbohydrates have been extensively studied over the past two decades, with scientists continuing to bring new evidence to light. In fact, we now know that in human milk there are over 200 HMOs
Soyyilmaz, B. et al. The mean of milk: A review of human milk oligosaccharide concentrations throughout lactation. Nutrients.13, 1–22 (2021).
– and counting! – with each thought to offer its own unique health benefits.
German, J. B., Freeman, S. L., Lebrilla, C. B. & Mills, D. a. Human Milk Oligosaccharides: Evolution, Structures and Bioselectivity as Substrates for Intestinal Bacteria. Nestle Nutr Workshop Ser Pediatr Program 62, 205–222 (2008).
Although a few individual HMOs can now be produced and added to infant milk formulas, producers are always looking for new ways to offer a more diverse mix of oligosaccharides. As we learn more about HMOs, it’s become clear that offering formula-fed babies a wide range of oligosaccharides is key for developing infant gut health and immunity. This is where prebiotic
The scientific definition of a prebiotic is “A substrate that is selectively utilized by host microorganisms conferring a health benefit”. Source: Gibson GR, et al. Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. Aug;14
galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) come in.
Prebiotic GOS are the most widely used oligosaccharides in infant milk formula. In fact, about 50% of infant milk formula contains GOS globally.
Innova product database, 2025.
It’s easy to see why, with extensive evidence pointing to the positive impact of GOS on the development of the infant gut microbiota.
Ben, X.-M. et al. Supplementation of milk formula with galacto-oligosaccharides improves intestinal micro-flora and fermentation in infants. Chin Med J (Engl) 117, 927–931 (2004).
Fanaro, S. et al. Galacto-oligosaccharides are bifidogenic and safe at weaning: a double-blind randomized multicenter study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 48, 82–8 (2009).
Sierra, C. et al. Prebiotic effect during the first year of life in healthy infants fed formula containing GOS as the only prebiotic: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind and placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Nutr 54, 89–99 (2014).
GOS is often referred to as a single ingredient, but actually consists of over 100 oligosaccharide structures, each made up of glucose and galactose units of varying lengths – some of the building blocks of HMOs. These different structures contribute to the oligosaccharide diversity in infant milk formula when GOS is added.
We’re passionate about early life nutrition and we’re always looking at ways we can leverage our 75 years’ experience in this sector to make new discoveries. In fact, this extensive knowledge recently helped us identify and understand more about some of the structures ‘hidden’ in GOS’ complex makeup. Our research identified 3’-galactosyllactose (3’-GL), 4’-galactosyllactose (4’-GL) and 6’-galactosyllactose (6’-GL) in Vivinal® GOS, and even showed that our GOS was particularly high in 4’-GL. This is really exciting news, as these galactosyllactoses are also found in human milk, as part of the HMO pool.
van Leeuwen, S. S., Kuipers, B. J. H., Dijkhuizen, L. & Kamerling, J. P. (1)H NMR analysis of the lactose/β-galactosidase-derived galacto-oligosaccharide components of Vivinal® GOS up to DP5. Carbohydr Res 400, 59–73 (2014).
This finding has been crucial to better understanding how GOS is supporting babies’ health.
We’re really excited by this latest discovery! New research shows that galactosyllactoses could offer promising benefits in infant gut health and immunity. Preclinical studies suggest that these galactosyllactoses support the growth of beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli.
Li, W. et al. Influences of structures of galactooligosaccharides and fructooligosaccharides on the fermentation in vitro by human intestinal microbiota. J Funct Foods 13, 158–168 (2015).
Meeusen, E. et al. Gram-scale chemical synthesis of galactosyllactoses and their impact on infant gut microbiota in vitro. Org Biomol Chem (2024).
Further research demonstrates that 3’-GL could help protect the gut barrier
Varasteh, S. et al. Human milk oligosaccharide 3’-galactosyllactose can protect the intestinal barrier to challenges. ESPGHAN conference abstracts (2019).
and stimulate T-regulatory cell responses that may support immune balance.
Ayechu-Muruzabal, V. et al. Modulation of the Epithelial-Immune Cell Crosstalk and Related Galectin Secretion by DP3-5 Galacto-Oligosaccharides and β-3′galactosyllactose. Biomolecules 12, 384 (2022).
While 3’-GL, 4’-GL, and 6’-GL have all been found to reduce inflammation in immature intestinal cells.
Ayechu-Muruzabal, V. et al. Modulation of the Epithelial-Immune Cell Crosstalk and Related Galectin Secretion by DP3-5 Galacto-Oligosaccharides and β-3′galactosyllactose. Biomolecules 12, 384 (2022).
Not at all – every GOS has a unique oligosaccharide fingerprint. For instance, FrieslandCampina Ingredients’ Vivinal® GOS contains more than 100 different oligosaccharide structures, each present at specific levels, which contribute to its diverse and functional profile.
Logtenberg, M. J. et al. Touching the high complexity of prebiotic Vivinal galacto- oligosaccharides using UHPLC-PGC-MS. J Agric Food Chem 68, 7800–7808 (2020).
From our studies, we know that the concentration of 4’-GL in Vivinal® GOS is particularly high, which could bring some important health benefits. This oligosaccharide has been shown to support the growth of ‘good’ bacteria – such as Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli – in the infant gut.
Li, W. et al. Influences of structures of galactooligosaccharides and fructooligosaccharides on the fermentation in vitro by human intestinal microbiota. J Funct Foods 13, 158–168 (2015).
Meeusen, E. et al. Gram-scale chemical synthesis of galactosyllactoses and their impact on infant gut microbiota in vitro. Org Biomol Chem (2024).
In vitro studies also suggest it can support infant immune health by reducing inflammation in immature intestinal cells.
Ayechu-Muruzabal, V. et al. Modulation of the Epithelial-Immune Cell Crosstalk and Related Galectin Secretion by DP3-5 Galacto-Oligosaccharides and β-3′galactosyllactose. Biomolecules 12, 384 (2022).
As one of the most studied GOS in the world – with over 70 clinical studies in infants and children reported – Vivinal® GOS has robust clinical backing. Research, for example, has shown that Vivinal® GOS can support the growth of Bifidobacteria,
Ben, X.-M. et al. Supplementation of milk formula with galacto-oligosaccharides improves intestinal micro-flora and fermentation in infants. Chin Med J (Engl) 117, 927–931 (2004).
Fanaro, S. et al. Galacto-oligosaccharides are bifidogenic and safe at weaning: a double-blind randomized multicenter study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 48, 82–8 (2009).
Sierra, C. et al. Prebiotic effect during the first year of life in healthy infants fed formula containing GOS as the only prebiotic: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind and placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Nutr 54, 89–99 (2014).
the development of the immune system
Arslanoglu, S., Moro, G. E. & Boehm, G. Early supplementation of prebiotic oligosaccharides protects formula-fed infants against infections during the first 6 months of life. J Nutr 137, 2420–4 (2007).
Arslanoglu, S. et al. Early dietary intervention with a mixture of prebiotic oligosaccharides reduces the incidence of allergic manifestations and infections during the first two years of life. J Nutr 138, 1091–1095 (2008).
Ranucci, G. et al. Galacto-oligosaccharide/polidextrose enriched formula protects against respiratory infections in infants at high risk of atopy: A randomized clinical trial. Nutrients 10, 286 (2018).
improve digestive comfort
Ben, X.-M. et al. Supplementation of milk formula with galacto-oligosaccharides improves intestinal micro-flora and fermentation in infants. Chin Med J (Engl) 117, 927–931 (2004).
Sierra, C. et al. Prebiotic effect during the first year of life in healthy infants fed formula containing GOS as the only prebiotic: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind and placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Nutr 54, 89–99 (2014).
Williams, T. et al. Tolerance of infant formulas containing prebiotics in healthy, term infants. JPGN 59, 653–658 (2014).
and enhance the absorption of calcium and iron.
Whisner, C. M., Martin, B. R., Schoterman, M. H. C. & Nakatsu, C. H. Galactooligosaccharides increase calcium absorption and gut bifidobacteria in young girls: a double-blind cross-over trial. Br J Nutr 110, 1292–303 (2013).
Paganini, D., Uyoga, M. A., Cercamondi, C. I. & Moretti, D. Consumption of galactooligosaccharides increases iron absorption from a micronutrient powder containing ferrous fumarate and sodium iron EDTA: a stable isotope study in Kenyan infants. Am J Clin Nutr 106, 1020–1031 (2017).
These studies highlight the potential of GOS in addressing key parental concerns like infant gut health and immunity.
Who doesn’t want the best for their children? It’s no surprise that immunity is a top concern during the first year of life; it’s the age when little ones pick up bugs from everywhere, from daycare to supermarkets. Parents understand that nutrition plays a vital role in their child’s well-being – research shows that over half of parents want infant formulas that support their babies’ developing immune systems.
Innova Market Insights & RFC, “Early Life Nutrition survey,” 2020.
Infant gut health is also a rising consideration for caregivers, especially as we learn more every day about the influence of the gut microbiota on digestive comfort and our overall health.
Because we believe that offering a wide range of oligosaccharide structures to formula-fed infants is key to supporting a good start in life, we are currently researching new ways to offer even more HMO structures through GOS. Our recent research led to the development of a breakthrough next-generation GOS ingredient, offering huge potential for infant milk formulation. Watch this space for more information coming soon!
In a word, yes! There’s an opportunity to pair GOS solutions with HMOs
Not from human milk
like 2’-FL. Not only do GOS and HMO combinations offer a larger diversity of oligosaccharides, but emerging research shows that this pairing may bring complementary gut and immunity benefits too.
Lindner, C. et al. Infant Fecal Fermentations with Galacto-Oligosaccharides and 2′-Fucosyllactose Show Differential Bifidobacterium longum Stimulation at Subspecies Level. Children 10, 430 (2023).
Lazarini, T. et al. Bifidogenic Effect of 2′-Fucosyllactose (2′-FL) on the Gut Microbiome of Healthy Formula-Fed Infants: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Nutrients 17, 973 (2025).
This could potentially help us better support infant health than if the ingredients are used in isolation.
Great question! To help innovators in early life nutrition harness the power of oligosaccharide diversity, we’ve developed a whitepaper that dives deeper into the science behind GOS for infant nutrition, as well as our latest research in this area. This serves as a valuable tool for brands looking to push infant nutrition innovation further.
Want to find out more about unlocking milk oligosaccharide diversity for infant health?
Galactooligosaccharides (GOS) are non-digestible carbohydrates, which selectively feed beneficial gut bacteria to promote a healthy microbiota. It is referred to as a single ingredient, but GOS has a complex composition, containing a mixture of many different oligosaccharide structures produced enzymatically. In fact, more than 100 diverse oligosaccharide molecules have been identified in GOS.
Logtenberg, M. J. et al. Touching the high complexity of prebiotic Vivinal galacto- oligosaccharides using UHPLC-PGC-MS. J Agric Food Chem 68, 7800–7808 (2020).
Some of these structures are also present in human milk, such as 3′-galactosyllactose (3’-GL), 4′-galactosyllactose (4’-GL) and 6′-galactosyllactose (6’-GL).
van Leeuwen, S. S., Kuipers, B. J. H., Dijkhuizen, L. & Kamerling, J. P. (1)H NMR analysis of the lactose/β-galactosidase-derived galacto-oligosaccharide components of Vivinal® GOS up to DP5. Carbohydr Res 400, 59–73 (2014).
As GOS are indigestible, they can reach the colon and are fermented there by the gut microbiota. There, GOS can selectively stimulate the growth of healthy gut bacteria, particularly Bifidobacteria, and help maintain optimal composition and activity. GOS have powerful benefits beyond the early years, too. Studies in adults show that GOS can improve gut comfort, reduce bloating, ease constipation and alleviate other gastrointestinal symptoms.
Wilson B, Rossi M, Dimidi E, Whelan K. Prebiotics in irritable bowel syndrome and other functional bowel disorders in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2019;109(4):1098-1111. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy376
Teuri U, Korpela R. Galacto-oligosaccharides relieve constipation in elderly people. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism. 1998;42(6):319-327. https://doi.org/10.1159/000012751 and Sairanen U, Piirainen L, Nevala R, Korpela R. Yoghurt containing galacto-oligosaccharides, prunes and linseed reduces the severity of mild constipation in elderly subjects. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2007;61(12):1423-1428. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602670
Emerging evidence also suggests GOS may reduce anxiety levels and improve mood by targeting the gut-brain axis.
Johnstone N, Milesi C, Burn O, van den Bogert B, Nauta A, Hart K, Sowden P, Burnet PW, Cohen Kadosh K. Anxiolytic effects of a galacto-oligosaccharides prebiotic in healthy females (18–25 years) with corresponding changes in gut bacterial composition. Scientific Reports. 2021;11(1):8302. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87865-w
Cohen Kadosh K, Basso M, Knytl P, Johnstone N, Lau JY, Gibson GR. Psychobiotic interventions for anxiety in young people: a systematic review and meta-analysis, with youth consultation. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2021;8(9):831-844. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00143-2
GOS have been added to infant milk formula for more than two decades, thanks to their myriad health benefits. A substantial body of scientific research highlights the positive impact of GOS on the development and composition of the infant gut microbiota
Ben, X.-M. et al. Supplementation of milk formula with galacto-oligosaccharides improves intestinal micro-flora and fermentation in infants. Chin Med J (Engl) 117, 927–931 (2004).
Fanaro, S. et al. Galacto-oligosaccharides are bifidogenic and safe at weaning: a double-blind randomized multicenter study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 48, 82–8 (2009).
Sierra, C. et al. Prebiotic effect during the first year of life in healthy infants fed formula containing GOS as the only prebiotic: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind and placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Nutr 54, 89–99 (2014).
– an effect that has helped to establish it as the most widely used oligosaccharide ingredient in early life nutrition globally. Some of the oligosaccharide structures identified in GOS have also been shown to support immunity in vitro. Studies show that 3’-GL, 4’-GL and 6’-GL can reduce inflammation in immature intestinal cells, while 3’-GL specifically stimulates T-regulatory cell responses that may support immune balance.
Ayechu-Muruzabal, V. et al. Modulation of the Epithelial-Immune Cell Crosstalk and Related Galectin Secretion by DP3-5 Galacto-Oligosaccharides and β-3′galactosyllactose. Biomolecules 12, 384 (2022).
Human milk oligosaccharides, or HMOs, are a group of complex, non-digestible carbohydrates that are the third most abundant solid component in human milk, after lactose and lipids. So far, more than 200 different HMOs have been identified in breast milk, each expected to have its own unique benefits.2 The amount and composition of HMOs in human milk depend on a variety of factors, like lactation stage and maternal genetics.
Soyyılmaz, B et al. The Mean of Milk: A Review of Human Milk Oligosaccharide Concentrations throughout Lactation. Nutrients 13 (2021).
Research over the years has shown that HMOs are crucial for infants’ healthy growth and development, particularly in gut health and immunity.
Bode, L. & Jantscher-krenn, E. Structure-Function Relationships of Human Milk Oligosaccharides. Advances in Nutrition 3, 383S-391S (2012)
But there’s no one single HMO responsible for the beneficial effects delivered to breast-fed infants. Each individual HMO is expected to play a specific role in an infant’s development. In fact, there’s increasing consensus that a wide diversity of oligosaccharide structures, is important to infant gut health and beyond.
With decades of experience in the early life nutrition sector, we are a global leader in developing and supplying GOS prebiotic ingredients. We have a renowned research centre in the Netherlands and regularly partner with leading universities, which allows us to stay at the cutting edge of GOS science. Our GOS prebiotic ingredient is the most studied in the world, with an ever-growing bank of research demonstrating its positive effect on infant gut health and immunity. As a trusted GOS prebiotic supplier, we help brands create infant nutrition solutions that deliver meaningful health benefits and give little ones a great start in life.
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